16 Ways Marijuana Affects The Economy

In honor of 4/20, we had hoped to give you 420 reasons to celebrate. Then we randomly got lazy. So here are, like, 16 reasons instead. Legalizing marijuana could save the U.S. government $13.7 billion by eliminating prohibition enforcement costs and adding billions in tax revenue, according to a paper by Harvard economist Jeffrey Miron that’s gained the support of more than 300 of his economist peers. Proponents have highlighted the potential economic benefits of legalizing marijuana for years, but the growth and legitimization of medical marijuana dispensaries recently could lend the argument more credibility. Tax revenue from medical marijuana dispensaries is already giving state and local budgets a much needed boost. Oakland, California, for example, inhaled $1.4 million, or 3 percent of the city's total business tax revenue from medical marijuana dispensaries last year, The New York Times reports. Meanwhile, the states of Colorado, Maine and Oregon have all pulled in added tax revenue from medical marijuana. If the experience of marijuana growing supplier weGrow is any indication, the marijuana industry could also be a big job creator. The chain has opened stores in California, Arizona and, most recently, Washington D.C. and with each new store 75 indirect jobs are created, according to AZBusiness Magazine. Meanwhile, Harborside Health Center, the biggest medical marijuana dispensary in Oakland, employs 120 people, according to the NYT. But not everyone is convinced legal marijuna would be such a boon for the economy, namely the federal government. Despite President Obama’s campaign promises to respect state laws concerning medical marijuana, the Department of Justice has recently cracked down. This month, Oaksterdam University, which offers training to medical marijuana growers was raided by federal agents, while the IRS has been targeting medical marijuana businesses since last year. President Obama said in 2009 “I don't think [legalizing marijuana is] a good strategy to grow our economy” but others seem to disagree.

Programs that we offer for our patients

Releaf offers!!!: 15min Chair Massage onsite between the hrs of 3pm-5pm every Wednesday...

Offer Free Yoga Certificates for our patients!!!

Acupunture onsite every other Tues of each month hrs 2pm-4pm (sign up begins in Sept)

Exclusive: Medical Marijuana Dispensaries No Longer Able to Accept Visa, MasterCard as of July 1

The main national company handling payment processing services for the medical marijuana industry will no longer accept Visa and MasterCard transactions from dispensaries, according to information obtained by MMJ Business Daily. Electronic Merchant Systems (EMS) – which provides merchant accounts for medical marijuana companies via a partnership with Chesapeake Bank in Virginia – informed its MMJ customers of the decision in an email (see full text at the end of this post). The new policy is effective July 1. The change covers both credit and debit cards, though the email says dispensary clients can still accept MMJ transactions conducted with Discover cards. EMS plans to send out another letter on Wednesday informing medical marijuana merchants to batch and settle all Visa and MasterCard transactions by June 30. EMS and Chesapeake Bank did not immediately return messages left by MMJ Business Daily. The move is another blow to the medical marijuana business, which is already struggling with a host of challenges tied to banking and payment processing. Most banks refuse to open or service accounts from dispensaries and related businesses, and American Express cut the industry off last year. With Visa and MasterCard out of the picture now, much of the industry will be forced to adopt an all-cash business model. While some dispensaries have worked out agreements with their local banks or offered vague, possibly misleading descriptions of their businesses to receive credit card processing services, most centers that currently accept cards use EMS. Companies that facilitate business between EMS and dispensaries are now scrambling to adapt. Several of these companies contacted for comment about the development said they are touting alternative services such as on-site ATMs, which eliminate the need for patients to carry large amounts of cash when they visit dispensaries. Others are still vowing to offer credit card processing services, though dispensaries should perform their due diligence on companies making these claims. “There are still legitimate non-cash solutions out there for dispensaries with a walk-in location, but proceed with caution,” said Michael L. Rupkalvis of The Transaction Group, which works with MMJ companies to find payment processing services. “If someone claims they can set up a merchant account for your dispensary, make sure they have medical marijuana dispensary listed as the business type on the application and medical marijuana as the product. Some reps will try and get an account approved by not putting the correct business type on the app, or what’s referred to as miscoding an application.” Aside from making life harder for medical marijuana businesses, the development could exacerbate security issues for the industry, as dispensaries will now have lots of cash on hand. “This is a disservice to the industry and communities around this industry,” Roger Neustadt, a principal of 420 Card Processing, said when contacted about the effects this will have on the industry. “The claim (by those opposed to MMJ) is that dispensaries increase crime, and this is going to tail right into that and support that notion because it makes them a bigger target.” Aaron Smith, executive director of the National Cannabis Industry Association, called on the Treasury Department to quickly step in and remedy the banking situation for MMJ companies. “The Treasury Department in our estimation has the ability to change regulations without an act of Congress,” Smith said. “It doesn’t make any sense regardless of what your position is on medical marijuana to force these businesses into a cash-only situation.” Here’s the email EMS sent to its agents: “In light of recent developments, we wanted to reach out and make you all aware of the latest news regarding Medical Marijuana merchants. Effective July 1st, 2012, MMJ merchants will no longer be able to accept Visa or MasterCard credit or debit cards, however, they can continue to accept Discover. All current MMJ merchants will be receiving a message on their May statements that reads: [IMPORTANT NOTICE Please be advised that as of July 1, 2012 you will no longer be able to accept Visa and MasterCard credit and debit cards for payment. Discover cards will still be honored. We will contact you in the coming weeks to facilitate this transition. If this situation should change with Visa and MasterCard we will inform you immediately. The process for this transition is simple; all merchants need to do is make sure that they batch and settle their transactions at the end of the day on Saturday, June 30th. On July 1st, only Discover transactions will receive approval. Those merchants who fail to batch and settle on June 30th will receive an RB error and will have to call in to Client Services for assistance.] We will be mailing a letter around June 20th that informs them of the need to batch and settle. Should you have any questions regarding this matter, please call your Agent Relationship Manager. As we informed the affected merchants, if this situation should change with Visa and MasterCard we will inform you immediately!”

Angel Perales, David Silva, Osvaldo Conde: Calif. Mayor And City Officials Accused Of Pot Shop Bribes

LOS ANGELES — If someone wanted to do business in the small Southern California city of Cudahy, federal prosecutors say one-time city manager Angel Perales had some advice. "Money makes the monkey dance," Perales told an FBI informant, according to court documents. Perales, Mayor David Silva and Councilman Osvaldo Conde were arrested Friday and charged with soliciting and accepting cash bribes totaling $17,000 to support the opening of a medical marijuana dispensary. If convicted of a bribery charge, they each face up to 10 years in prison. The three officials were in court Friday afternoon for bail hearings. Silva and Perales were released on $50,000 appearance bonds. Conde was released on $100,000 bond. It wasn't immediately known if they had retained attorneys. Court documents laid out the scheme to approve a pot shop in exchange for cash and also portrayed the suburb of 25,000 as a virtual den of iniquities where drug use, voter fraud and illicit sex permeated City Hall. The arrests are the latest in a series of corruption scandals plaguing small cities south of Los Angeles. Most notable were the 2010 arrests of the former city manager and several other officials from neighboring Bell, who are accused of misappropriating funds to overpay themselves. Federal prosecutors said in an affidavit that after weeks of soliciting bribes, Conde, Perales and Silva accepted $15,000 in February from an FBI informant who formerly owned a medical marijuana shop in a nearby city. Conde later met with the informant and received $2,000, court documents show. The informant estimated the dispensary could generate up to $2.5 million within a year. "The allegations in this case describe a corrosive and freewheeling attitude among certain officials in the city of Cudahy," said U.S. Attorney Andre Birotte Jr. "The stain left by public corruption is indelible, extending beyond any individual case because of the general erosion of public confidence in government." Recorded conversations show that Perales, who ran the city's code enforcement division, helped arrange the deal and knew plenty of the city's dirty secrets. Among them was the firing of former City Manager George Perez in March 2011. The council said Perez was let go "for cause," but Perales, 43, told the informant the ex-official was doing drugs on the job. Perez could not immediately be located for comment. Perales also said Conde, 50, was the most powerful man in Cudahy. Conde seemed to confirm that to the informant as well. "In other words, I'm leading and bring all these ideas," said Conde, according to the affidavit. One of the ideas was to be a business partner with Perales to build a massage parlor where sex would be provided to patrons, the affidavit said. Perales tells the informant the new venture could generate $10,000 to $15,000 every month. In two meetings with the informant, Conde showed up with a pair of armed bodyguards, who turned out to be employees of the 1.2-square-mile city. Conde also had a revolver with him at one of the meetings, according to court documents. Perales also suggested he helped get Conde elected five years ago. He tells the informant during a recorded conversation he persuaded 60 to 70 people to vote for Conde. Conde finished with 472 votes and won by a margin of 33 votes, court documents show. Thom Mrozek, a U.S attorney's spokesman, said the investigation is ongoing and he couldn't say whether additional charges would be filed. Perales suggested the shakedown of the prospective pot clinic owner wasn't the first time Conde and Silva looked to receive bribes. "These guys are not your typical, uh, council people," Perales tells the informant, according to the affidavit. "They've dealt with, uh, you know, people that throw money down." All three men are scheduled to return to court July 19 for arraignment.

How can Medical Cannabis help Post traumatic Stress Disorder

While much debate remains about whether or not medical marijuana is effective for the treatment of Post Traumatic Stress Disorder, some states are allowing doctors to prescribe cannabis for it. While more studies are being conducted, it's looking like medical marijuana is a viable treatment for PTSD - along with continued counseling. It is estimated that nearly 25% of all medical marijuana patients are also military veterans. Many of these veterans also suffer from PTSD received through traumatic combat experiences. However, very few of these veterans are actually prescribed medical marijuana for this disorder. States such as New Mexico have declared PTSD (Post Traumatic Stress Disorder) a viable ailment to be prescribed medicinal cannabis. However, not everyone is on board with this notion. Director of the Stanford Center on Stress and Health, Dr. David Spiegel stated about the use of MMJ in PTSD patients, “The last thing you want is to be losing control at a time when you’re remembering an event in which you lost control.” Many medical marijuana patients who have been diagnosed with PTSD have contested this by saying they don’t use marijuana to the point of feeling like they’re out of control. Many of them feel that there is a big difference between college dorm room pot smoking and responsible, medicinal use of cannabis. In order to help alleviate some of the confusion, the American Medical Association is running controlled studies to test the effectiveness of cannabis in treating PTSD and other ailments. However, the research that has been done has shown that certain joyful and uplifting sativa are good for the treatment of PTSD, as well as indica-dominant hybrids that don’t provide a heavy sedative effect.

Medical Marijuana Does Not Increase Teen Drug Use, Study Shows

A new study shows that medical marijuana does not increase teen drug use. Marijuana use among teens has been on the rise for some time--it's become more popular than smoking cigarettes in recent years--but a provocative new study shows that legalizing pot for medical purposes doesn't increase the chance that teens will abuse it or certain other drugs. "There is anecdotal evidence that medical marijuana is finding its way into the hands of teenagers, but there's no statistical evidence that legalization increases the probability of use," Daniel I. Rees, an economics professor at the University of Colorado Denver who worked on the study, said in a written statement. Rees and his team looked at nationally representative data from high school students from 1993 through 2009--medical marijuana was legal in 13 states during that time--and found that legalization didn't affect marijuana use at school. According to study co-author Benjamine Hansen, assistant professor of economics at the University of Oregon, the data showed the opposite: There was often an inverse relationship between legalization and marijuana use. What's more, the researchers found no evidence that medical marijuana legalization led to an increase alcohol or cocaine use. "This result is important given that the federal government has recently intensified its efforts to close medical marijuana dispensaries," Hansen said in the statement. The news adds another layer to the ongoing debate over whether medical marijuana should be legalized in more states. Currently, medical marijuana is legal in 17 states. Just last month, a judge suffering from cancer wrote a New York Times op-ed in favor of legalization for medical reasons in New York state, confessing that he sometimes smokes before meals to relieve nausea and pain resulting from his illness and the medicines used to treat it. In December, a study out of Rhode Island found that legalization of the drug did not lead to an increase in illegal use among teens. On the other hand, there are those who argue that marijuana use has become too blase of a subject, even among parents, and such attitudes on the drug have led to an increase in use among young people. As recently as December, R. Gil Kerlikowske, director of the White House Office of National Drug Control Policy, tied the increase in teen marijuana use to the drug's legalization for medical purposes,

National Cancer Institue in support of Medical Marijuana

This complementary and alternative medicine (CAM) information summary provides an overview of the use of Cannabis and its components as a treatment for people with cancer -related symptoms caused by the disease itself or its treatment. This summary contains the following key information: •Cannabis has been used for medicinal purposes for thousands of years. •By federal law, the possession of Cannabis, also known as marijuana, is illegal in the United States. •The U.S. Food and Drug Administration has not approved Cannabis as a treatment for cancer or any other medical condition. •Chemical components of Cannabis, called cannabinoids, activate specific receptors found throughout the body to produce pharmacologic effects, particularly in the central nervous system and the immune system. •Commercially available cannabinoids, such as dronabinol and nabilone, are approved for the treatment of cancer-related side effects. •Cannabinoids may have benefits in the treatment of cancer-related side effects. Many of the medical and scientific terms used in this summary are hypertext linked (at first use in each section) to the NCI Dictionary of Cancer Terms, which is oriented toward nonexperts. When a linked term is clicked, a definition will appear in a separate window. All linked terms and their corresponding definitions will appear in a glossary in the printable version of the summary. Reference citations in some PDQ CAM information summaries may include links to external Web sites that are operated by individuals or organizations for the purpose of marketing or advocating the use of specific treatments or products. These reference citations are included for informational purposes only. Their inclusion should not be viewed as an endorsement of the content of the Web sites, or of any treatment or product, by the PDQ Cancer CAM Editorial Board or the National Cancer Institute.

San Francisco's Marijuana Dispensaries Still Don't Cause Crimes, Study Shows

Whenever a new medical marijuana dispensary applies for a San Francisco permit, a troop of naysayers is ready with a predictable script: dispensaries cause crime, harm children, and destroy neighborhoods. However, the city's Planning Commission tired of this long ago -- because it's simply not based on fact. "We have not had direct testimony of law enforcement that they believe there is an increase in crime in areas because there is medical marijuana dispensaries," Commissioner Michael Antonini said March 1 in response to such claims. Local zoning decisions are not made based on this misnomer, but federal-level law enforcement moves are. Dispensary-related crime, and instances of this crime near children, are exactly why local United States Attorney Melinda Haag shut some 10 state-legal Bay Area cannabis dispensaries since Oct. 7, 2011. Haag presented no data along with her claims, and a recent study conducted by UCLA researchers won't help her either. Based on crime trends in Sacramento in 2009, the study found "no observed ... associations between the density of medical marijuana dispensaries and either violent or property crime rates," and further found that dispensary security measures like door guards and security camera may be crime deterrents. Crime predictions are often based on "routine activity theory," the study says. According to this theory, crime will occur when several condition are met: "The presence of a motivated offender; a suitable target defined by its value, visibility, access, and/or likelihood of low resistance to crime; and the absence of guardians against crime." Researchers Nancy Kepple and Bridget Freisthler looked at other crime-causing variables including employment, young men, and vacant housing. They crunched the numbers and found no discernible link. "[D]ispensaries may be associated with crime but no more than any other facility in a commercially zoned area with conditions that facilitate crime," they wrote. That is not causal, and they did not factor "guardianship" -- i.e. security cameras, doormen -- in their study. If they did, one could extrapolate that dispensaries in fact reduce crime. "If medical marijuana dispensaries have strong guardianship, such as security and monitoring systems, routine activity theory would suggest that the three necessary conditions for crime are not met," the researchers wrote. The researchers stop far short of proclaiming any kind of direct relationship, but note that "these findings run contrary to public perceptions," notably a report from the California Police Chiefs Association, which says doom, gloom, and thugs with guns inevitably follow the opening of a pot club. So why does this canard persist? Why do politicians say, "liquor store yes -- pot club, no"? An Oakland dispensary owner we talked to about the study recently suggested another problem-causing zoning use: schools -- specifically middle or high schools. "These kids are a menace," he said, referring to the teenagers who sometimes engage in vandalism on their way to or from a downtown charter school. "Ask anyone one this block who'd they rather be near." Hmm. We hear much about how the crackdown is intended to "save the children" -- but who then is saving us from the children? We put in a request to SFPD to discuss the current study, but haven't yet heard back. We will update when we do. In the meantime, we're left with the 2009 white paper from the California Police Chiefs Association, which stated unequivocally that dispensaries are nothing but trouble. Confirmation bias is a hell of a drug.

Marijuana Recipes: 'High Times Cannabis Cookbook' Author Gives Edible Weed Advice

When most people think of stoner food, they typically think of fatty, greasy items like nachos or chili cheese fries. When most people think of food to get you high, the first thought is usually pot brownies. But there is a whole realm of marijuana cuisine that goes beyond the obvious. Enter "The Official High Times Cannabis Cookbook" by Elise McDonough and the editors of High Times magazine. This cookbook might have some familiar favorites, but it also offers interesting riffs on more advanced cannabis cuisine like farmers' market risotto and potato gnocchi with wild mushroom ragu. McDonough, a 10-year veteran of High Times magazine, stresses that you can't just throw some marijuana in food and call it a day. Like all forms of cooking, technique is key. Her version of stoner cuisine isn't about what to eat once you're high -- it's about how to create tasty meals that can give you a nice buzz. In the book's introduction, McDonough explains: Mention the word "marijuana" or better yet pull out your stash, and the first thought that springs to most stoner's minds is rolling a joint, packing a pipe, toking a bowl, hitting a bong, or putting a flame to some other smoking accessory. But it wasn't always that way. Ancient people throughout the world have use marijuana as a cooking ingredient -- pot brownies only became popular in the 1950s. The passage of California's Proposition 215 in 1996, effectively legalizing medical marijuana, helped in "opening the door for more and more people to realize the benefits of eating their stash instead of smoking it," McDonough writes. HuffPost Food spoke with McDonough to learn more about the book and the finer points of cannabis cookery. Check out the interview below, and scroll down for some recipes from the book -- including Bar-B-Cannabis Sauce and Cheeto Fried Chicken. Are you seeing an uptick in the consumption of edible marijuana? It's definitely a growing part of the industry. It's very similar to what's going with organic food and farmers' markets. The cost of cannabis is falling in California because so many people are growing it. People are trying to find other way to use it and make a profit. What are the reasons a patient or recreational user might prefer to cook and eat the substance over more traditional forms of ingestion? When you eat the cannabis as opposed to smoking or vaporizing, it lasts longer. if you deal with chronic pain, you are going to get release for four to five hours instead of one to two hours. It is more discreet, and it saves your lungs. Chronic longterm smoking can lead to bronchitis. The staple of French cuisine are the mother sauces (hollandaise, bechamel, etc.) Is there an equivalent in cannabis cuisine? The basic infusion that you are going to have to master is the butter or the oil. The main way you get cannabis into your food is simmering it in a chosen fat. That involves a chemical reaction of a THC molecule binding to the lipid. What's the easiest technique for extracting THC from marijuana -- butter, oil, tinctures or something else? The easiest standard way is with butter because it is easy and potent. If you are a vegan or you don't want that much saturated fat, olive oil and coconut oil works well. Can you talk about the process of what happens when you apply heat to cannabis? Does cannabis lose any of its potency when you cook it at a high temperature for a prolonged time? (baking, etc.) Once it is in the butter, you can bake it at a normal temperature. If you cook at a very high temperature, the THC will begin to degrade and it will lose its potency. For butter, keep it on a low simmer -- you definitely wouldn't bring it to boil. One of the best ways to make a good cannabutter is to do it in your Crock Pot. It is important for people to know that raw cannabis, the fresh plant out of the ground, is not psychoactive at all. There is a process called decarboxylation after you dry the plant that makes it psychoactive. What is the key to a good cannabis dish? Don't overdo it. Especially when people are making stuff and they know you are from High Times. I want to be able to eat a satisfying portion of something without it sending me to the moon. Theres also such a wide variety of ingredients to start -- dried buds, trimmed leaves, sifted kief, unpressed hash (the most expensive, but tastiest). If you're looking for flavor, you're going to want to used dried cannabis instead of fresh. Sometimes you can get kind of a unpleasant grassy taste from fresh marijuana. The flavors of marijuana clearly work better with some foods than others -- what are some characteristics of the flavor profile of marijuana and how do you use that to determine good pairings and recipes? There's a group of chemicals found in all plants called terpenes and flavonoids. Different marijuana strains also have these chemicals. Some strains are citrusy and others can taste like pine. With the advent of laboratory testing, people are doing analysis which allows people to experiment. For example, in the book, for the Tom Yum Ganja, chef Ashley Boudreaux found a hay strain that paired very favorably with the ingredients. Are there any foods that don't work with marijuana? I haven't come across things that are unsuccessful, only when there is too much [cannabis] in there. if you do a good infusion, you are going to get a hint of it. It pairs really well with chocolate and peanut butter though. What are your favorite recipes in the book? It depends on my mood. I love the cover recipe -- pumpkin pie is one of my favorite things. I like the Ganja Granny's Smoked Mac 'N' Cheese. I also like the lighter stuff like the Rasta Pasta and Reggae Rice and Bean Soup. Do you have any advice for a budding cannabis chef? Low and slow. That goes for both eating and cooking. When you are eating, you want to start with a low dose and go slow. Wait an hour to see how it effects you. Same with cooking. Simmer low and slow. Check out some recipes from the High Times Cannabis Cookbook below. All slideshow text excerpted from the High Times Cannabis Cookbook.

Medical Marijuana helps Anorexia

The standard definition of anorexia nervosa, known by most people simply as "anorexia," is that it's a psychiatric illness that causes an eating disorder marked by poor perception of body image, low body weight, excessive exercise, purging of food (forced vomiting), voluntary starvation, or the use of diuretics and diet pills. It's common knowledge that around 90% of all anorexics are female. Since anorexia also includes what, in clinical language, is referred to as "an acute loss of appetite, often associated with psychological factors," it would seem logical that cannabis, or at least cannabinoid drugs would be an effective therapy. Pot is known for giving you the munchies, after all. Unfortunately, since anorexia is, at heart, a psychological disorder that manifests itself physically, the use of cannabis may not help. Cannabinoids have been shown to have only minimal success at appetite suppression in patients with classic anorexia, despite the fact that the primary ingredient, delta-9 THC, has a well-established history with the successful treatment of cachexia, the appetite loss associated with HIV/AIDS. There are synthetic THC pills, marketed under the name Marinol, which may be used as appetite stimulants in qualified patients, but doctors could lose their licenses by prescribing these drugs as "off-label" treatments for patients with true anorexia nervosa and not suffering from the severe weight loss typically associated with AIDS or cancer chemotherapy. Similarly, the use of either medical marijuana or synthetic THC may be contraindicated in Alzheimer's disease patients. According to a 2002 study by Grotenhermen, Russo. Cannabis and Cannabinoids, Pharmacology, Toxicology, and Therapeutic Potential (New York: The Hawthorn Integrative Healing Press), "A positive influence on body weight was also reported in 15 patients with Alzheimer’s disease who were previously refusing food. Surprisingly, THC also decreased the observed severity of disturbed behavior. In patients diagnosed with primary anorexia nervosa there was no measurable cannabinoid effect, presumably because the underlying pathological mechanism is not loss of appetite." Translation: while the use of cannabis or cannabis-derived drugs improved the appetites of Alzheimer's disease patients, it also made their actual Alzheimer's disease worse, while there was no measureable positive effect in anorexia patients.

Recent Research on Medical Marijuana

Emerging Clinical Applications For Cannabis & Cannabinoids Humans have cultivated and consumed the flowering tops of the female cannabis plant, colloquially known as marijuana, since virtually the beginning of recorded history. Cannabis-based textiles dating to 7,000 B.C.E have been recovered in northern China, and the plant's use as a medicinal and mood altering agent date back nearly as far. In 2008, archeologists in Central Asia discovered over two-pounds of cannabis in the 2,700-year-old grave of an ancient shaman. After scientists conducted extensive testing on the material's potency, they affirmed, "[T]he most probable conclusion ... is that [ancient] culture[s] cultivated cannabis for pharmaceutical, psychoactive, and divinatory purposes." Modern cultures continue to indulge in the consumption of cannabis for these same purposes, despite a present-day, virtual worldwide ban on the plant's cultivation and use. In the United States, federal prohibitions outlawing cannabis' recreational, industrial, and therapeutic use were first imposed by Congress under the Marihuana Tax Act of 1937 and then later reaffirmed by federal lawmakers' decision to classify marijuana -- as well as all of the plant's organic compounds (known as cannabinoids) -- as a Schedule I substance under the Controlled Substances Act of 1970. This classification, which asserts by statute that cannabis is equally as dangerous to the public as is heroin, defines cannabis and its dozens of distinct cannabinoids as possessing 'a high potential for abuse, ... no currently accepted medical use, ... [and] a lack of accepted safety for the use of the drug ... under medical supervision.' (By contrast, cocaine and methamphetamine -- which remain illicit for recreational use but may be consumed under a doctor's supervision -- are classified as Schedule II drugs; examples of Schedule III and IV substances include anabolic steroids and Valium respectively, while codeine-containing analgesics are defined by a law as Schedule V drugs, the federal government's most lenient classification.) In July 2011, the Obama Administration rebuffed an administrative inquiry seeking to reassess cannabis' Schedule I status, and federal lawmakers continue to cite the drug's dubious categorization as the primary rationale for the government's ongoing criminalization of the plant and those who use it. Nevertheless, there exists little if any scientific basis to justify the federal government's present prohibitive stance and there is ample scientific and empirical evidence to rebut it. Despite the US government's nearly century-long prohibition of the plant, cannabis is nonetheless one of the most investigated therapeutically active substances in history. To date, there are over 20,000 published studies or reviews in the scientific literature pertaining to the cannabis plant and its cannabinoids, nearly one-third of which were published within the last three years. This total includes over 2,700 separate papers published in 2009, 1,950 papers published in 2010, and another 2,100 published to date in 2011 (according to a key word search on the search engine PubMed Central, the US government repository for peer-reviewed scientific research). While much of the renewed interest in cannabinoid therapeutics is a result of the discovery of the endocannabinoid regulatory system (which we describe in detail later in this booklet), some of this increased attention is also due to the growing body of testimonials from medical cannabis patients and their physicians. The scientific conclusions of the overwhelmingly majority of modern research directly conflicts with the federal government's stance that cannabis is a highly dangerous substance worthy of absolute criminalization. For example, in February 2010 investigators at the University of California Center for Medicinal Cannabis Research publicly announced the findings of a series of randomized, placebo-controlled clinical trials on the medical utility of inhaled cannabis. The studies, which utilized the so-called 'gold standard' FDA clinical trial design, concluded that marijuana ought to be a "first line treatment" for patients with neuropathy and other serious illnesses. Among the studies conducted by the Center, four assessed smoked marijuana's ability to alleviate neuropathic pain, a notoriously difficult to treat type of nerve pain associated with cancer, diabetes, HIV/AIDS, spinal cord injury and many other debilitating conditions. Each of the trials found that cannabis consistently reduced patients' pain levels to a degree that was as good or better than currently available medications. Another study conducted by the Center's investigators assessed the use of marijuana as a treatment for patients suffering from multiple sclerosis. That study determined that "smoked cannabis was superior to placebo in reducing spasticity and pain in patients with MS, and provided some benefit beyond currently prescribed treatments." Around the globe, similarly controlled trials are also taking place. A 2010 review by researchers in Germany reports that since 2005 there have been 37 controlled studies assessing the safety and efficacy of marijuana and its naturally occurring compounds in a total of 2,563 subjects. By contrast, many FDA-approved drugs go through far fewer trials involving far fewer subjects. As clinical research into the therapeutic value of cannabinoids has proliferated so too has investigators' understanding of cannabis' remarkable capability to combat disease. Whereas researchers in the 1970s, 80s, and 90s primarily assessed cannabis' ability to temporarily alleviate various disease symptoms -- such as the nausea associated with cancer chemotherapy -- scientists today are exploring the potential role of cannabinoids to modify disease. Of particular interest, scientists are investigating cannabinoids' capacity to moderate autoimmune disorders such as multiple sclerosis, rheumatoid arthritis, and inflammatory bowel disease, as well as their role in the treatment of neurological disorders such as Alzheimer's disease and amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (a.k.a. Lou Gehrig's disease.) In fact, in 2009, the American Medical Association (AMA) resolved for the first time in the organization's history "that marijuana's status as a federal Schedule I controlled substance be reviewed with the goal of facilitating the conduct of clinical research and development of cannabinoid-based medicines." Investigators are also studying the anti-cancer activities of cannabis, as a growing body of preclinical and clinical data concludes that cannabinoids can reduce the spread of specific cancer cells via apoptosis (programmed cell death) and by the inhibition of angiogenesis (the formation of new blood vessels). Arguably, these latter findings represent far broader and more significant applications for cannabinoid therapeutics than researchers could have imagined some thirty or even twenty years ago. THE SAFETY PROFILE OF MEDICAL CANNABIS Cannabinoids have a remarkable safety record, particularly when compared to other therapeutically active substances. Most significantly, the consumption of marijuana -- regardless of quantity or potency -- cannot induce a fatal overdose. According to a 1995 review prepared for the World Health Organization, "There are no recorded cases of overdose fatalities attributed to cannabis, and the estimated lethal dose for humans extrapolated from animal studies is so high that it cannot be achieved by ... users." In 2008, investigators at McGill University Health Centre and McGill University in Montreal and the University of British Columbia in Vancouver reviewed 23 clinical investigations of medical cannabinoid drugs (typically oral THC or liquid cannabis extracts) and eight observational studies conducted between 1966 and 2007. Investigators "did not find a higher incidence rate of serious adverse events associated with medical cannabinoid use" compared to non-using controls over these four decades. That said, cannabis should not necessarily be viewed as a 'harmless' substance. Its active constituents may produce a variety of physiological and euphoric effects. As a result, there may be some populations that are susceptible to increased risks from the use of cannabis, such as adolescents, pregnant or nursing mothers, and patients who have a family history of mental illness. Patients with hepatitis C, decreased lung function (such as chronic obstructive pulmonary disease), or who have a history of heart disease or stroke may also be at a greater risk of experiencing adverse side effects from marijuana. As with any medication, patients should consult thoroughly with their physician before deciding whether the medical use of cannabis is safe and appropriate.